# Accounting Finance > Operator finance for SMEs/startups: GAAP/IFRS P&L, 13-week cash/runway forecasting, SaaS unit economics (NRR/GRR/CAC payback), chart of accounts, monthly close, bank reconciliation, ASC 606/IFRS 15 revenue recognition, VAT/sales-tax checklists. Use when building a P&L/budget, forecasting cash, setting up bookkeeping, or checking invoicing/VAT. - **Type:** Skill - **Install:** `agentstack add skill-san-npm-skills-ws-accounting-finance` - **Verified:** Yes — security-reviewed for prompt injection and unsafe behavior - **Seller:** [san-npm](https://agentstack.voostack.com/s/san-npm) - **Installs:** 0 - **Category:** [Agent Skills](https://agentstack.voostack.com/c/agent-skills) - **Latest version:** 0.1.0 - **License:** MIT - **Upstream author:** [san-npm](https://github.com/san-npm) - **Source:** https://github.com/san-npm/skills-ws/tree/main/skills/accounting-finance - **Website:** https://skills-ws.vercel.app ## Install ```sh agentstack add skill-san-npm-skills-ws-accounting-finance ``` Requires the [AgentStack CLI](https://agentstack.voostack.com/docs/cli). Works with Claude Code, Cursor, and any MCP-compatible agent. ## About # Accounting & Finance > **Not tax, legal, or audit advice.** This skill encodes general operator practice and standard frameworks (US GAAP, IFRS, ASC 606/IFRS 15, EU VAT). Rates, thresholds, registration triggers, and filing rules change and are jurisdiction-specific. **Before filing anything or relying on a number for a board, lender, investor, or tax authority, have it reviewed by a qualified accountant/tax advisor** licensed in the relevant jurisdiction. Route any edge case — multi-state US nexus, cross-border digital services, equity/SAFE accounting, R&D capitalization, transfer pricing, M&A, or revenue-recognition judgment calls — to a professional. Treat every concrete rate/threshold below as **"verify before use."** > **Sibling skills (don't duplicate — cross-link):** country-level tax depth → `eu-tax-accounting` (all 27 EU member states: corporate, VAT, payroll, deadlines). Billing/dunning/usage metering implementation → `saas-billing` (Express/Node) or `stripe-billing` (Next.js). Pricing/packaging → `pricing-optimization`. GTM funnel/forecasting → `revenue-operations`. Churn/retention cohort analysis → `retention-analytics`. EU regulatory (GDPR, contracts, entity) → `eu-legal-compliance`. --- ## 1. P&L Structure (GAAP / IFRS) Standard multi-step income statement. **Key rule: define what OpEx contains so D&A is counted exactly once.** Below, operating expenses are stated *excluding* depreciation & amortization (the "ex-D&A" convention common in SaaS reporting); D&A is its own line. EBITDA then equals operating income + D&A with no double-count. If your accounting system buckets D&A *inside* OpEx, drop the separate D&A line and compute EBITDA = operating income + D&A (added back), not by re-subtracting it. | # | Line item | Calculation | Watch for | |---|-----------|-------------|-----------| | 1 | **Revenue (net)** | Recognized per ASC 606/IFRS 15 (§6), net of refunds/credits | Recognized ≠ billed ≠ cash collected. Don't book deferred revenue as revenue. | | 2 | **COGS / Cost of revenue** | Hosting/infra, third-party API/usage fees, payment processing, customer support & success delivery, onboarding/implementation labor | SaaS COGS typically 15–30% of revenue. Keep R&D and S&M *out* of COGS. | | 3 | **Gross profit** | Revenue − COGS | SaaS target gross margin 70–85%. | | 4 | **Operating expenses (ex-D&A)** | Sales & Marketing + Research & Development + General & Administrative | Allocate fully-loaded headcount (salary + employer taxes + benefits) to the right function. | | 5 | **EBITDA** | Gross profit − OpEx(ex-D&A) | Proxy for operating cash generation; ignores capex, financing, tax. | | 6 | **Depreciation & amortization** | Capitalized assets + capitalized software/intangibles amortization | Pure non-cash; never in COGS *and* here. | | 7 | **Operating income (EBIT)** | EBITDA − D&A | GAAP operating result. | | 8 | **Net interest** | Interest expense − interest income | | | 9 | **Pre-tax income (EBT)** | EBIT − net interest ± other | | | 10 | **Income tax expense** | Current + deferred tax | Tax expense (accrual) ≠ tax *paid* (cash). | | 11 | **Net income** | EBT − income tax | Bottom line. | > **EBITDA vs Adjusted EBITDA:** "Adjusted EBITDA" further adds back stock-based compensation, one-time/restructuring items, and M&A costs. Always label which one you're showing and footnote the add-backs — investors discount unexplained adjustments. **Rule of 40** (growth % + FCF or EBITDA margin % ≥ 40) is a common SaaS health check, not a GAAP metric. **Monthly P&L review checklist** - [ ] Recognized revenue reconciles to the billing system and the deferred-revenue roll-forward (§6), not just to cash. - [ ] COGS contains only cost-of-delivery; S&M/R&D/G&A are not leaking into it. - [ ] Headcount fully loaded (salary + employer payroll tax + benefits) and allocated to the correct function. - [ ] One-time/non-recurring items flagged and excluded from run-rate and from EBITDA→Adjusted EBITDA. - [ ] D&A counted once (per the convention you chose above). - [ ] MoM and YoY comparatives included; material variances explained (§8). - [ ] Accruals booked for incurred-but-unbilled expenses (the close, §5). --- ## 2. Cash Flow Forecasting ### 13-week rolling direct cash forecast (the operator standard) Forecast **cash in/out**, not accruals. Rebuild weekly from the bank balance. ``` Week | Start cash | + AR collected | + Other in | − Payroll | − Vendors/AP | − Tax/VAT | − Debt svc | = End cash 1 | 150,000 | 45,000 | 0 | 30,000 | 8,000 | 0 | 0 | 157,000 2 | 157,000 | 12,000 | 0 | 0 | 5,000 | 0 | 2,500 | 161,500 3 | 161,500 | 28,000 | 5,000 | 30,000 | 9,000 | 14,000 | 0 | 141,500 ... 13 | ... ``` **Rules** - Use **cash collected** (apply realistic AR collection lag: e.g. net-30 invoices land in week 5–6, with a haircut for late payers), not revenue recognized. - Payroll on **actual** pay dates (semi-monthly/biweekly/monthly) including employer taxes; biweekly = 26 pay runs/yr (two 3-paycheck months). - VAT/sales-tax remittances and corporate-tax instalments on **statutory due dates** — these are large, lumpy, and easy to forget. - Model AP on actual vendor terms; don't assume everything clears in the booking week. - Flag any week where ending cash dips below a **defined floor** (e.g. ≥ 2 months of operating burn or a debt covenant minimum). - Keep a low/base/high collections scenario for any week with concentrated customer risk. ### Burn & runway ``` Gross burn = total operating cash OUT in the month (exclude one-offs / financing) Net burn = gross burn − cash revenue collected (the number that actually depletes the bank) Runway (mo) = current cash balance / average forward NET burn (use a 3-month trailing avg, not a single noisy month) ``` > **Runway is a trigger to plan, not a script.** A short runway with predictable recurring revenue, an open credit line, and a near-term profitability path is very different from a short runway with lumpy revenue and no debt access. Weigh: revenue predictability & retention (§3), fundraising-market conditions, debt availability and **covenants**, the path/time-to-default-or-breakeven, dilution at the current valuation, and the owners'/board's risk tolerance. Generally start serious fundraising **9–12 months** before zero cash (a raise commonly takes 3–6 months), and pre-model the cost-cut lever you'd pull if a round slips — but the right move is situational; pressure-test it with the board/CFO. --- ## 3. SaaS / Subscription Unit Economics ### MRR / ARR movement schedule (single source of truth for "growth quality") ``` Month Beginning MRR 100,000 + New (new logos) 12,000 + Expansion (upsell) 6,000 + Reactivation 1,000 − Contraction (downsell) (3,000) − Churned (lost logos) (5,000) = Ending MRR 111,000 ARR = Ending MRR × 12 = 1,332,000 ``` - **Quick Ratio** = (New + Expansion + Reactivation) / (Contraction + Churned). > 4 is strong; 110% = healthy expansion engine; > 120% = elite. | | **Logo retention** | 1 − logo churn | High logo churn + high NRR ⇒ a few big accounts carry you (concentration risk). | ### CAC, LTV, payback — state your assumptions or the numbers lie | Metric | Formula | Notes / pitfalls | |--------|---------|------------------| | **Blended CAC** | All S&M / *all* new customers (incl. organic) | Flatters efficiency; use for company-level view. | | **Paid CAC** | Paid S&M / customers from paid channels | The number that matters for scaling spend. | | **CAC payback (months)** | CAC / (new MRR per customer × **gross margin %**) | Use *gross-margin-adjusted* MRR, not raw price. 0.75 efficient; account for **sales-cycle lag** (spend in Q1 closes in Q2). | > **Common mistakes:** mixing gross vs net churn; forgetting gross-margin adjustment in payback/LTV; counting organic logos in *paid* CAC; ignoring the S&M→revenue timing lag; using a single month's churn (annualize a multi-month cohort). For deep cohort/retention curves see `retention-analytics`. --- ## 4. Bookkeeping Automation, Chart of Accounts & the Monthly Close The body's biggest leverage point: a clean **chart of accounts (COA)** + a repeatable **close** + automated **bank feeds** + **approval controls**. (Implements the "bookkeeping automation" promise.) ### 4a. Chart of accounts (SMB/SaaS starter — numeric ranges) Group by the P&L/balance-sheet line it rolls into so reporting is automatic. | Range | Type | Example accounts | |-------|------|------------------| | 1000–1999 | **Assets** | 1000 Operating bank · 1010 Savings/reserve · 1100 Accounts receivable · 1200 Prepaid expenses · 1500 Fixed assets · 1510 Accumulated depreciation (contra) · 1600 Capitalized software | | 2000–2999 | **Liabilities** | 2000 Accounts payable · 2100 Credit cards · 2200 Accrued expenses · 2300 **Deferred revenue** · 2400 Sales-tax/VAT payable · 2500 Payroll liabilities · 2700 Loans/notes payable | | 3000–3999 | **Equity** | 3000 Common stock/share capital · 3100 Additional paid-in capital · 3200 Retained earnings | | 4000–4999 | **Revenue** | 4000 Subscription revenue · 4100 Usage/overage revenue · 4200 Services/onboarding · 4900 Refunds & credits (contra) | | 5000–5999 | **COGS** | 5000 Hosting/infrastructure · 5100 Third-party API/usage · 5200 Payment processing fees · 5300 Support & success (delivery) · 5400 Implementation labor | | 6000–7999 | **Operating expenses** | 6000 Salaries & wages · 6010 Employer payroll taxes · 6020 Benefits · 6100 Sales & marketing · 6200 R&D/software dev (non-capitalized) · 6300 Rent & facilities · 6400 SaaS tools/subscriptions · 6500 Professional fees (legal/accounting) · 6600 Travel · 6700 Depreciation & amortization | | 8000–9999 | **Other** | 8000 Interest income · 9000 Interest expense · 9500 Income tax expense | **Rules:** keep it shallow (use classes/tags/departments for dimensions, not 200 accounts); never expense to a bank/AP account; reserve a contra account for refunds; reconcile **2300 Deferred revenue** to the §6 roll-forward and **2400 Sales-tax/VAT payable** to filed returns. ### 4b. Bank-feed reconciliation workflow 1. Connect bank/credit-card **feeds** (Plaid/native) into the ledger (QuickBooks Online, Xero, NetSuite, Wave). 2. Set **bank rules** to auto-categorize recurring lines (payroll provider → 6000/6010; Stripe payout → split fee 5200 vs gross; AWS → 5000). 3. **Match** feed transactions to existing invoices/bills; create from rules only when unmatched. 4. Clear the bank rec so **ledger balance = bank statement balance** every month; investigate any unreconciled item — never "plug" it. 5. Reconcile the **Stripe/PSP payout**: gross charges − processing fees − refunds = net deposit; book fees to 5200, not as a revenue contra. ### 4c. Monthly close checklist (target: business-day +5) - [ ] All bank & credit-card accounts reconciled to statements (4b). - [ ] AR aging reviewed; bad-debt reserve assessed. - [ ] AP complete; **accruals** booked for incurred-but-unbilled costs (cut-off). - [ ] Prepaids amortized (insurance, annual SaaS tools). - [ ] Depreciation/amortization run for the period. - [ ] **Deferred-revenue roll-forward** posted; revenue recognized per ASC 606/IFRS 15 (§6). - [ ] Payroll fully recorded incl. employer taxes and PTO accrual. - [ ] Sales-tax/VAT liability reconciled to returns/registers. - [ ] Intercompany/owner transactions cleared (no personal expenses in the company ledger). - [ ] Flux/variance review vs prior month, budget, and forecast (§8); lock the period. ### 4d. Approval controls, receipt capture & audit trail (segregation of duties) - **Separate** who *requests*, *approves*, and *pays* — no single person initiates and disburses (fraud control). In tiny teams compensate with owner review of the bank feed + dual sign-off above a threshold. - **Spend authorization matrix:** e.g. €5k founder/CFO · > €25k board. Document and enforce in the AP/expense tool. - **Receipt capture:** require an itemized receipt per expense (Ramp/Brex/Pleo/Expensify auto-OCR and attach); enforce a per-transaction documentation rule for tax substantiation. - **Audit trail:** keep an immutable, time-stamped log of who entered/edited/approved each transaction; restrict ledger admin; never share logins. Retain records per jurisdiction (commonly **7–10 years**; verify locally). - **Month-end lock:** close the prior period so posted entries can't be silently altered; corrections go through dated adjusting entries. --- ## 5. Invoicing & Accounts Receivable ### Invoice/dunning workflow 1. Contract signed → create invoice/subscription record. 2. Invoice issued → send on billing date with a payment link. 3. Track **aging** by terms (net 15/30/60). 4. Overdue dunning sequence (tune by segment; soften for strategic accounts): - Day 1 past due: friendly reminder + link. - Day 7: second notice. - Day 14: escalate to account owner. - Day 30: final notice; assess late fee (if contractually allowed) and collections. > For automated dunning, retries, and payment-failure recovery on Stripe, use `saas-billing`/`stripe-billing` — don't hand-roll it. ### What a compliant invoice contains Exact mandatory fields are **jurisdiction- and transaction-specific** (and differ for a *full* VAT invoice vs a *simplified* receipt below a local threshold). General good practice: - Unique sequential invoice number; issue date (and tax point/supply date if different); due date. - Supplier legal name, address, and **tax/VAT/company registration number where the supplier is registered**. - Customer name and address. - Line items: description, quantity, unit price; subtotal; tax rate(s) and tax amount per rate; total payable; currency. - Payment terms and remittance/bank details. > **The customer's VAT number is NOT universally required.** It is required (and must be valid) when you apply the **EU B2B reverse charge / intra-Community supply** — without a verified buyer VAT ID you generally cannot zero-rate (validate via **VIES**). But many customers (consumers, non-VAT-registered small businesses, non-EU buyers) have no VAT number, and that is fine. Likewise, *your* VAT number only appears if you are VAT-registered. Don't block invoicing on a VAT field that doesn't apply. Confirm the exact field set for your country with `eu-tax-accounting` or a local accountant. --- ## 6. Revenue Recognition (ASC 606 / IFRS 15) **5-step model:** (1) identify the contract → (2) identify distinct performance obligations → (3) determine the transaction price → (4) allocate price to obligations (by standalone selling price) → (5) recognize revenue as/when each obligation is satisfied. **SaaS patterns** | Arrangement | Recognition | |-------------|-------------| | Monthly subscription | Ratably as service is delivered (each month). | | Annual prepaid (e.g. €12,000 upfront) | €1,000/mo recognized; remainder sits in **deferred revenue (2300)**. | | Multi-element (license + implementation + support) | Allocate price across distinct obligations by standalone selling price; recognize each on its own pattern. | | Setup/onboarding fee | Defer and recognize over the period it relates to (often the contract/expected-life) unless it's a distinct obligation delivered upfront. | | Usage/consumption | Recognize as usage occurs. | ### Deferred-revenue roll-forward (must tie to the balance sheet and §3) ``` Beginning deferred revenue 80,000 + Billings (new + renewals) 30,000 − Revenue recognized this period (26,000) = Ending deferred revenue 84,000 ``` > Multi-element allocation, contract modifications, variable consideration, and capitalized contract costs (ASC 340-40) involve **judgment** — get auditor/accountant sign-off before relying on the policy externally. --- ## 7. Tax Compliance Checklists > **All rat … ## Source & license This open-source skill is cataloged on AgentStack and links to its original source — we do not rehost the code. - **Author:** [san-npm](https://github.com/san-npm) - **Source:** [san-npm/skills-ws](https://github.com/san-npm/skills-ws) - **License:** MIT - **Homepage:** https://skills-ws.vercel.app Install and usage instructions live in the source repository linked above. ## Pricing - **Free** — Free ## Security capabilities Automated source analysis of v0.1.0 — what this tool can access: - **Network access:** no - **Filesystem access:** no - **Shell / process execution:** no - **Environment & secrets:** no - **Dynamic code execution:** no *"Yes" means the capability is present in the source — more access means more to trust, not that it is unsafe.* ## Versions - **0.1.0** — security scan: passed — Imported from the upstream source. ## Links - Listing page: https://agentstack.voostack.com/l/skill-san-npm-skills-ws-accounting-finance - Seller: https://agentstack.voostack.com/s/san-npm - Browse the marketplace: https://agentstack.voostack.com/browse --- Listed on AgentStack — the marketplace for AI agent skills and MCP servers. Every listing is security-reviewed. Creators keep 70%.